Organizational cognitive neuroscience (OCN) is a new term used to describe the intersection, integration and application of nueroscientific discoveries with organizational and consulting psychology.

OCN is being defined in business leadership and marketing research. "…taking a wider nueroscientific approach to researching marketing or business-relevant problems and decisions will allow a greater understanding of why in general we behave or react the way we do, and a correspondingly greater ability to predict this”, (Lee, N., Butler, M., & Senior, C., 2010, p. 130).  

Discoveries in neuroscience have produced scientific technological advances using fMRI brain imaging devices. This brain imaging technology has allowed scientists to map activity within regions of the brain to examine human behaviors and responses. These discoveries are expanding organizational psychology towards more neurobiological based interventions and assessments. 

We now have a greater understanding and insight into the process of emotional arousal and response patterns for individuals. Brain science imaging techniques are able to teach us and show us the neurological process of decision-making. “By combining this approach with functional brain scanning it is possible to understand which areas of the brain generated that specific emotional response—and whether distinct brain regions are involved in other types of decision making”, (Lee, N., Butler, M., & Senior, C., 2010, p. 130).  

Organizational cognitive neuroscience (OCN), while still in its infancy, is quickly forging a new way of thinking about human behavior and decision making from a neurobiological brain systems approach.

References
Lee, N., Butler, M., & Senior, C. (2010). The brain in business: neuromarketing and organizational cognitive neuroscience. Journal of Marketing. Volume 49; pp. 129–131. doi: 10.1007/s12642-010-0033-8.http://cms.springerprofessional.de/journals/JOU=12642/VOL=2010.49/ISU=3-4/ART=33/BodyRef/PDF/12642_2010_Article_33.pdf

Paying attention to the emotional atmosphere in a work environment is crucial to the overall health and well-being of individuals and employees.

An emotional contagion can impact all members of a group, either positively or negatively.  Researcher’s Dezecache, Conty, Chadwick, Philip, Soussignan, Sperber, & Grèzes (2013) examined emotional contagions within a group. Their findings reveal how emotional states are spread throughout people spontaneously! 

People exchange emotional cues and non-verbal communication from each other and from groups of people either with direct contact or peripherally. Consciously and unconsciously people read emotional cues in work environments and at social gatherings. These subtle exchanges of information are transmitted via facial expressions, body language, verbal-tone, and emotional expressions. In these instances, communication occurs.

People are inherently perceptive of what other’s emotional expressions produce. In their research Dezecache, Conty, Chadwick, Philip, Soussignan, Sperber, & Grèzes (2013) demonstrate that emotions like joy and fear are instantly transmitted throughout a group setting. They show that people are neurologically programmed to respond and react to the emotional signals of others, which in turn produces emotional states. This hard-wired function is a survival mechanism. 

“These findings demonstrate that one is tuned to react to others' emotional signals and to unintentionally produce subtle but sufficient emotional cues to induce emotional states in others. This phenomenon could be the mark of a spontaneous cooperative behavior whose function is to communicate survival-value information to nonspecifics”, Dezecache, Conty, Chadwick, Philip, Soussignan, Sperber, & Grèzes (2013).

Understanding the collective emotional tone of an organization is imperative for guiding the group towards better cohesiveness, collaboration, and cooperation. A work environment that feels healthy and vibrant allows people to function more optimally, as a group. Positive emotions spread throughout people who experience them. An executive who works with this understanding can improve the collective emotional intelligence of their work environment.

References:
Dezecache, G., Conty, L., Chadwick, M., Philip, L., Soussignan, R., Sperber, D., & Grèzes, J. (2013). Evidence for Unintentional Emotional Contagion Beyond Dyads. Public Library of Science. Volume 8(6), e67371. Doi:  10.1371/journal.pone.0067371

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23840683

What past experiences are your clients projecting onto present situations? Exploring transference and counter-transference in the context of consulting can add value to the client. Working through (unconscious) past experiences could enhance individual success and creativity.

Working as an executive coach and psychological consultant requires an understanding and awareness of the discovery process in working with a client, particularly unconscious aspects of a client. This includes understanding the client’s defenses as they arise, resistance to the work, transference that is projected onto you, and counter-transference, all within the context of coaching or consulting.

Equally important is establishing a working-alliance and understanding that a parallel process will ensue. As a coach and consultant, it is our work to examine and understand the unconscious layers of this process, to identify and discuss the experiences as they present themselves and to provide an interpretation that can be shared in a collaborative way with the client.

Going through this process with awareness allows effective interventions to be implemented. Working with a relational approach, intersubjectively, creates a collaborative atmosphere. In this context it’s relevant and important for the coach and client to reach attunement and to discuss both interpretations and interventions. A strong working alliance will allow this to happen.

In his research article Hann (2011) cites Freud’s (1912, 1913, & 1917) work on the subject of transference, “In it he defines transference as that part or those parts of the person’s highly individual, highly personal and largely unconscious loving impulses which is not being satisfied in her relationships”. He’s referring the unconscious process that each individual projects onto a situation in some way. The coach must pay attention to the unconscious process in the session and illuminate and bring into awareness what dynamic is happening. In an ideal situation, this collaborative effort will facilitate greater self-awareness and self-discovery for the client. In situations where the resistance is strong and defenses are held, it will require time and understanding.

Hann (2011) discusses in great detail Freud’s (1912, 1913, & 1917) work on transference and counter-transference. The enlightening aspect of this research is that Hann (2011) brings to light an important psychodynamic aspect of executive coaching and consulting, and states that adherence to this process affects the outcome efficacy.

References:
Hann, E. (2011). Back to basics: How the discovery of transference is relevant for coaches and consultants today. International Coaching Psychology Review.Volume 6(2). The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764

Haan, E. & Sills, C. (2010). The relational turn in executive coaching. Journal of Management Development. Volume 29(1). Retrieved online October 20, 2013: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1891119&show=abstract

What attachment styles are present in your clients and how do you work with it? Unconscious attachment styles and patterns of behavior can sabotage success. Attachment styles are exacerbated under stressful events. Help clients develop self-awareness and the skills to create a more cohesive sense of themselves, a more authentic self.

A psychodynamic approach in executive coaching is beneficial when patterns of dysfunctional behaviors present within the client. This might be evident when a client is experiencing emotional dysregulation or difficulty maintaining a stasis of emotional equilibrium and close relationships.

Possible triggers include changes in their personal or professional lives, e.g.: relationship challenges, job transitions, impending loss, healthcare issues or illness. The outcome might be evident by professional performance issues and conflictual encounters. Depending upon their attachment style, they will react accordingly (see attachment style descriptions below).

It takes extreme situations for a person to become open to examining sources of tension and to seek consultation. By participating in ongoing (psychoanalytic) coaching, an individual can improve their personal and professional effectiveness by understanding the thoughts and feelings underlying areas of tension. This involves a psychodynamic approach on the part of the executive coach or consultant and an understanding and examination of the unconscious behavioral patterns of the client. A client may be reacting to uncomfortable feelings, emotions and situations by externalizing conflicts instead of dealing with the discomfort. This suggests that the attachment style of the client is presenting difficulties.

The following descriptions summarize psychodynamic attachment styles that can be a source of disruption and tension. All of these styles represent a continuum of behavioral patterns that can be exacerbated when stressors present.

1. Secure attachment is approachable and supportive; this person actively seeks contact or closeness with significant others and uses either a family member, superior, or peer as a secure base from which to explore the world, ideas, emotions, or manage stress or trauma.

2. Insecure or tenuous attachment is a person who appears disorganized and uncomfortable when approaching others for support or help. Often they’ll display outward signs of distress and longing for contact yet seem oblivious to those that could provide this closeness and therefore don’t reach out.

3. Insecure or avoidant attachment is a person who typically avoids closeness with family members, friends, superiors, and peers. Generally they do not actively seek support or comfort from others. These individual tends to be more isolated and a loner. They generally do no offer support to others, a lack of empathy.

4. Insecure ambivalent attachment is a person who forms attachments but has difficulty maintaining any consistency with how closely they remain to others. They will experience difficulties with this closeness and feel that it’s stressful to managing.

5. Insecure disorganized attachment style is a person who appears to have no close relationships with other people. They will often experience distress being close to others, and feel invaded upon, hostile and controlling. 

A psychodynamically trained psychological consultant working as an executive coach to examine the interpersonal aspects of a client with an understanding of the core personality developmental conflicts. Developing this diagnostic framework will help the client to understand how their personal attachment styles formed and how they can best manage the characteristics of these styles as they experience stressors.

References
Kilburg, Richard R. (2004). When Shadows Fall: Using Psychodynamic Approaches in Executive Coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research. Vol. 56, No. 4, pp. 246-268. DOI: 10.1037/1065-9293.56.4.246.

In their article titled The relational turn in executive coaching Haan and Sills (2010) suggest that a relational shift is needed in executive coaching. Haan and Sills purport that with the recent developments in neuroscience the “relationship” is key to a coherent and collaborative process in executive coaching, “…we have seen the emergence of a countervailing force to reckon with, a force that both directs us back to the diversity and uniqueness of our clients and also especially to the relationship between coach and client”, (p. 2). The essence of the neuroscience research they reference supports the role of supportive relationships, beginning at infancy and throughout the lifespan, that result in an internal template of enhance self-cohesion and stability.

They suggest that this (relational) process involves integrating psychotherapeutic techniques of working more “intersubjectively” with clients, thus allowing the “mutual influencing of all relationships”. It is their opinion that in these fast-paced times, where there is less of a cohesive support system in-place for executives, that the helping profession of executive coaching can play a vital role in this supportive relationship.

Haan and Sills describe inextricable links between coaching and psychotherapy and emphasize that coaches would benefit their clients to integrate more of these therapeutic techniques into their coaching sessions. These techniques include: setting up weekly meetings and clarifying expectations so that the client feels a sense of structure, client-centered listening and creating an meaningful alliance, “Relationship has been shown to be the single best predictor of outcome of therapy, in such a way that it is not only the quality of the relationship in the final session that is a good predictor of final outcome (which would be a trivial finding), but the quality of the relationship in the first sessions as well”, (Haan & Sills, 2010, p.3).

To add to the neuroscience research that supports this idea, I reference my neuroscience research on the role of mirror neurons and empathy in working intersubjectively with clients: http://gradworks.umi.com/35/08/3508085.html#!. 

Haan, E. & Sills, C. (2010). The relational turn in executive coaching. Journal of Management Development. Volume 29(1). Retrieved online October 20, 2013: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1891119&show=abstract

Self-awareness, compassion, and empathy are crucial (soft) skills that CEO's would benefit from developing. A balance of hard and soft skills is key: balancing the hard skills of conflict management with self-awareness and empathy would benefit leadership.

"...the core coaching element that CEOs need to grow their skills and effectiveness: Increased self-awareness, honest self-knowledge, about one's motives, personality capacities and values.".

"Self-awareness is crucial to leadership and it can be heightened through coaching."

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/douglas-labier/why-ceos-dont-want-execut_b_3762704.html
Stanford Business 2013 Executive Coaching Survey
http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/cldr/research/surveys/coaching.html
Standord School of Medicine, Compassion
http://med.stanford.edu/ism/2012/july/compassion.html

By: Lisa Lukianoff, Psy.D.

It's a choice whether or not to allow self-sabotaging behavior trump personal success. An experienced coach, therapist, or psychological consultant, one who is trained in psychodynamic techniques, can help clients improve inter-personal skills. The scope of this brief examination is to explore these sometimes self-sabotaging and unconscious underpinnings involved in the executive coaching process.

The relational aspect of executive coaching involves psychodynamic aspects that warrant skill thought and interventions to facilitate greater self-awareness for the client. Unconsciously motivated behaviors are viewed from an object relations perspective, looking at conflicts and attachment styles, and psychodynamic interpretations and interventions. Kilburg (2004) comprised a list of notable behaviors that benefit from psychodynamic interventions. A few these include situations where the client is under-performing professionally, despite an interest in improvement, experiencing disruptive emotional reactions, and experiencing problems with relationships, both at work and at home, (p. 252).

Using psychodynamic thought and technique after an initial assessment phase and for ongoing sessions can be useful when these dysfunctional behavioral patterns emerge. Among the benefits of using psychodynamic (influenced) interventions, Kilburg (2004) presents in his findings that they may help with the following desired improvements, (p. 253):
1. Self-awareness
2. Emotional containment and management
3. Executive performance
4. Behavioral flexibility and creativity
5. Resiliency
6. Psychosocial development
7. Professional relationships
8. Intimate relationships
9. Mental abilities
10. Capacity for spiritual growth

(The next writing in this series will begin with a chart Kilburg (2004) developed describing developmental conflicts and general attachment patterns and descriptions.)

Kilburg, Richard R. (2004). When Shadows Fall: Using Psychodynamic Approaches in Executive Coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research. Vol. 56, No. 4, pp. 246-268. DOI: 10.1037/1065-9293.56.4.246.

The Neurobiology of Stress Management and Enhanced Brain Functioning
Facilitator: Lisa Lukianoff, Pys.D.

OVERVIEW 
This workshop will provide a presentation and understanding of the neurobiological stress response activated in the brain in response to stressful situations. Participants will learn skills to better self-regulate this neurobiological process and the negative effects of stress, which will enhance their brain performance. This presentation will explain the adrenal system function, how activation of the limbic region affects emotions, the role of the amygdala during fight-or-flight stimuli, the function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system and increased cortisol levels during prolonged stress.


Role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
During exposure to stress, the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis acts as a regulator, both influenced by and provide feedback to the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal glands. The HPA function is a primary aspect of the neuroendocrine system in the stress response cycle, including bodily regulation of digestion, the immune system, emotions and moods, sexuality and the inflow and outflow of energy. It serves as a central mechanism for the complex interactions of hormones, glands, and parts of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). The HPA axis combined with corticosteroids produces the physiological response to stress. (Lange C, Zschucke E, Ising M, Uhr M, Bermpohl F, Adli M., 2013).



HPA axis and the neuroendocrine system
The autonomic nervous system (ANS), the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the neural circuits in the hypothalamus, brainstem and forebrain work collaboratively to coordinate a response to stress.

The ANS responds to stress by activating neurons to stimulate release of adrenaline and noradrenalin (norepinephrine) which causes an increase in heart rate and vasoconstriction.

The HPA responds to stress by activating the hypothalamus to stimulate the corticotropin releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin. High levels of corticotropin releasing hormone is associated with major depression and Alzheimer’s disease. Arginine vasopressin restricts blood vessels. These combined responses stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone which activates the Glucocorticoids synthesis. This functions primarily to mobilize energy stores during stress.

Motivational Interviewing (adaptation) and Psychoanalytic Thought as Executive Coaching Technique 
 By: Lisa Lukianoff, Psy.D.

            Executive coaching is an area of practice within the APA Division 13, Society of Consulting Psychology, (http://www.apadivisions.org/division-13/). Coaching has become an effective strategy for professional development and goal attainment among business professionals and individuals.
            The practice of consulting psychology as an executive coach employs theoretical approaches and relevant models drawing from multiple disciplines within the field of clinical psychology, psychotherapy, counseling, organizational psychology, behavioral psychology and management.
            This discussion will introduce how to work with an adaptation of motivational interviewing (MI) in the context of a coaching intervention technique and how psychoanalytic thought influences these techniques.
            This is not a full examination and research into these subjects, rather it is a brief discussion about a few of the ideas presented in two articles. It is the intention of this author to provide a brief but skillful integration of an adaptation of MI and psychoanalytic thought in the professional practice of executive coaching.
             Most of these examples and citations in this discussion demonstrate an inextricable link between the use and understanding of psychoanalytic thought and executive coaching. And while there are similarities in constructing the framework of techniques and interventions, the primary focus of executive coaching remains grounded in assisting a client in modifying (current) behaviors to attain a desirable outcome or goal in their professional or personal lives.

           
References

Harakas, Peter. (2013). Resistance, Motivational Interviewing, and Executive Coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research. American Psychological Association, 2013, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp. 108–127 1065-9293/13/DOI: 10.1037/a0033196.

Kilburg, R. & Levinson, H. (2008). Executive dilemmas: Coaching and the professional perspectives of Harry Levinson. Consulting Psychology Journal Practice and Research. Vol. 60, No. 1, pp. 7-32. DOI:10.1037/1065-9293.60.1.7. 

When working with your superiors in a workplace, it’s beneficial to advocate your authentic expression of positive emotions to further goal attainment.  While positive emotions in general are contagious to varying degrees in any interpersonal interactions, amplifying them in a work context has shown favorable outcomes for goal attainment. Additionally, inauthentic displays of positive emotions can cast an impression that someone isn’t forthcoming.

“It is not surprising that expressing positive emotions authentically has positive effects regardless of the interaction partner. Authentic expression of positive emotions has all the advantages associated with expressing positive emotions that have been postulated, and found, in research on emotional contagion…”  (Wong, Tschan, Messerli &Semmer, 2013).http://www.frontiersin.org/Emotion_Science/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00188/abstract

An eloquent and articulate job description for executive coaching and other types of coaching (White Paper, Executive Coaching Summit 1: Dr. Lee Smith and Dr. Jeannine Sandstrom):

"The focus of the coaching is usually upon organizational performance or development, but may also have a personal component as well. The results produced from this relationship are observable and measurable, commensurate with the requirements the organization has for the performance of this person being coached.
Quick Points of the Definition:
·  A relationship exists between Coach and high-level individual(s) of the organization.
·  The relationship occurs in and is sponsored by differing kinds of organizations with multiple stakeholders.
·  Coaching is for the benefit of a person with high levels of responsibility and broad scope of impact.
·  Focus of the coaching may be both organizational and personal development.
·  Outcomes are observable and measurable, and match organizational performance requirements."